Notes of internal ballistics
September 18th, 2009 Posted in internal Ballistics, arms, chronographer, munitioning, reloading
Article written thanks to the collaboration of Valerio Monti
With references to:
Internal ballistics - article of E.Mori (www.earmi.it)
Wikipedia - free encyclopaedia on web

Sections of the article (active index visualising the complete article)
- Work and kinetic energy of an office of throwing
- Ballistic yield (Rb)
- I use the coefficient of ballistic yield
- Thermic yield (Rt)
- I use the coefficient of thermic yield
- Calculation examples leaving from Rb and Rt
- Relations of Heydenreich
- Tabella_1 Heydenreich coefficients
- Tabella_2 Heydenreich coefficients
- Calculation examples when the tables were using Heydenreich
- Final considerations and sheet of automatic calculation
The ballistics is the branch of the mechanical physics that is born for the study of the motion of a "projectile", meant like an inert body subjected to the strength of gravity and to the viscous friction of the fluid in which it moves (we will refer genericamente to projectile, wanting to unify the mathematic models to be followed, it is for weapons to smooth cane that to ruled cane). The ballistics has then differed in several branches of study that maintain the code “ballistic“, in all that you correlate to the fire-arms.
The ballistics can be subdivided in four principal branches:
- Internal ballistics: he studies the behaviour of the projectile when he is still inside the gun and subjected to the forces generated by the lighting of the office of throwing.
- External ballistics: he studies the parabolic motion of the projectile after he has been fired or thrown.
- Final ballistics: he studies the reaction of a body that enters into contact with the projectile. In other words he studies the effects caused by the projectile on the struck target.
- Intermediate ballistics: he studies the motion of the projectile in the immediate closeness of the living one of flight. She consists in the study of the intermediate phenomena between internal and external ballistics.
Certainly the internal ballistics, like scientific discipline, has been born after the external ballistics: if, in fact, this last one does reference exclusively to the beginnings of the mechanics, why drawn of the behaviour of a mass, that one of the projectile, in the gravitational field (in presence of not simple phenomena which the resistance of the means and the gyroscopic effect), the internal ballistics is based on the study of the combustion of the office of throwing, on the consequent trend pressorio inside the cane of the weapon and on the movement of the projectile inside the same one.
To follow we will be responsible for the mathematic basic models that, signs the physical characteristics of the used propellant, of the cane of the weapon and of the projectile, allow to consider the speed of exit of the same thing, the pressures in cane and several other specific sizes. Leaving from some general equations of the motion, we will arrive at the definition of the coefficients of ballistic and thermic yield, before analysing the empiric relations of Heydenreich that, with acceptable approximation, allow to consider principal characteristic parametres numerous. It is clinched that as for following is the fruit of an extreme simplification, been distant then by a rigorous, but sufficient treatment to fix the fundamental cencetti.
Work and kinetic energy of an office of throwing (↑)
We leave then from the second beginning of the dynamics whose typical expression is the next one:
a mass body metre subjected to the strength F, undergoes an acceleration to (a variation of speed) proportional to the applied strength. The strength to which the projectile is subjected to the deflagration of the blow, is not other what the product between the area of his straight section S (for supposed simplicity equal to the straight section of the cane and determined at the calibre of the weapon), multiplied by the middle pressure in cane Pm (forza=pressione x surface), then we will have:
Substituting (2) for the relation (1) we obtain:
In mechanics the work (L) is defined like the product between the applied strength (F) and the obtained moving (d):
The projectile in movement, will produce a work equal to the product between the applied strength to him and the sudden moving, moving equal to the length of the cane (lc). For simplicity the necessary fractions of the work will be ignored for: the sbossolamento of the projectile, to win the forcing and the flowing friction in cane, to expel the column of air that occupies the same one. We will have in definitive:
(when the direction of the strength was coinciding, on the shot, with the moving direction in cane of the projectile). If we substitute to F his value expressed previously in (2), we have:
Then the work of transfer made by an office of throwing depends on three factors that are:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)
Such an entity of the work is identified by the kinetic energy possessed by the projectile in the moment in which he leaves the living one of flight of the weapon. We know that the kinetic energy Ec is given by the product between mass metre and speed V according to the equation:

(7)
Substituting with the speed V, the speed to the flight V0 and to the mass metre, the mass of the projectile p and dividing for the gravity acceleration g, we will have the kinetic energy in Chilogrammetri (Kgm):

(8)
with:
- Ec = kinetic Energy
- p = weight of the projectile
- V02 = square of the speed to the flight
- g = gravity acceleration (equal to 9,81 m/s2)
We have said that the work in cane is equal to the kinetic energy of the projectile to the flight then:

(9)
if now we substitute the relations beforehand determinate, (6) and (8), in (9), we will have:

(10)
which, the pressure mediates in cane it becomes:

(11)
This last formula then, it lets us calculate the value of the middle pressure in cane (in atm) knowing:
- p = weight of the projectile
- V02 = square of the initial speed
- g = 9,81 m/s2 (acceleration of gravity)
- S = straight section of the cane
- lc = length of the cane
For exactitude, lc the length of the cane is not peculiar, but it represents the run in cane made at the projectile, then we will have:
lc = (length cane) – (height case) (I project sinking in the case)
At this point, we introduce a correction element on the weight of the projectile because it is necessary to him to add also the weight of the half of the office of throwing. In the energy budget in fact, we will have to consider not only the energy impressed to the projectile (bullet or borra pallini) but also the kinetic energy assumed by the gases of deflagration. Their total mass, in the hypothesis of null interaction with the air, it can be considered a draw to that one of the propellent dust contained in the cartridge (chemical law of Lavoisier about the conservation of the mass). The speed of such gases is null in correspondence of the bottom of the case (breech of the weapon) and it decorates with the speed of the bullet an instant before he leaves the flight living one. To simplify, we will consider then on average that the mass of the gases in movement towards the mouth of the cane, should be equivalent in the half of the mass of the propellent dust contained inside the cartridge. Or analogously, that the energy impressed to the propellant, is relative to the half of his mass. With such a correction the relation (11) becomes:

(12)
where:
- pp/2 = weight of the half of the office of throwing
Ballistic yield (↑)
In the normal conditions of loading, that is with fit weights of the projectile and adequate orders of loading (trigger and doses) in each dust the report between middle pressure (Pm) and maximum pressure (Pmax) is a characteristic value named “Ballistic yield”, he varies to the change of the weight of the projectile. The definition we will have:

(13)
which:

(14)
but, (12), Pm we have seen equal being to:

(12)
therefore, substituting on (14 (12), we obtain:

(15)
We define now the unities of measure:
- p = weight of the projectile in Kg
- pp = weight of the dust Kg
- V0 = initial speed of the projectile in m/sec
- g = 9,81 m/s2 (acceleration of gravity)
- S = area of the straight section of the cane in cmq
- lc = length of the real run of the projectile in metre
- Rb = ballistic coefficient of the used dust, characteristic for each type of dust in relation to the weight of the projectile.
So we will have the value of the Pmax in kg/cmq (atm)
If we want to obtain the values in bar it is sufficient to insert into the calculation the relative conversion coefficient. We will have to multiply (15) for 0,981, or rather for g/10. We will have in bar:

(16)
Simplifying for g be to the numberer to which to the denominator, we obtain:

(17)
Expressing the section in mmq instead of what cmq as in (16) we will have at last:

(18)
where we will be able to consider:
- p = weight of the projectile in g
- pp = weight of the dust g
- V0 = initial speed of the projectile in m/sec
- g = 9,81 m/s2 (acceleration of gravity)
- S = area of the straight section of the cane in mmq
- lc = length of the real run of the projectile in mm
- Rb = ballistic coefficient of the used dust, characteristic for each type of dust in relation to the weight of the projectile.
Pmax will turn out to be expressed in bar (he notices: if p and pp are expressed by them in grammes, lc must be expressed by it in millimetres; if p and pp are expressed by them in kilogrammes, lc must be expressed by it in metres).
I use the coefficient of ballistic yield (↑)
For the test of our reloadings there is quite simple to be provided with a reliable chronographer but, not with a cane manometrica, we will be able to notice then only the speed to the mouth of the office (V0) while we are never able to know the Pmax of exercise of the munitions. The relation (18) is extremely useful to give us an estimate of the pressure in cane (under the statistical outline) leaving from the alone chronographic datum.

(18)
Thermic yield (↑)
To supplement the preceding formulas, we must express a further concept, that of thermic yield. He lets establish the dose of dust necessary for a projectile of a determinate "weight" that we want to throw with a determinate speed. The thermic yield Rt is defined like the existing report between: useful work L (equal to the kinetic energy of the projectile) and the thermic energy Lt produced by the office of dust. Varied Rt to the change of the weight of the projectile and to the order of the cartridge.
The thermic energy Lt is constituted by the product of three factors:
- pp = weight of the office of dust
- pc = Calorific value of the dust
- j = mechanical equivalent of the heat
The calorific value (pc) of a dust, it indicates the calories produced by the combustion of one gramme of propellant, is measured in calories / gramme (cal/g). The mechanical equivalent of the work (j) is a factor of conversion of thermic unities in mechanical unities equal to 0,427 (for rounding off in excess of 0,4267). We can write then (it espresso in Kgm):

(19)
The definition:

(20)
but, expressing the work L like the kinetic energy Ec of the relation (8):

(8)
and using the relation (19), substituting in (20) we will have:

(21)
If now we solve the equation compared to pp that is the weight of the dose of dust to be known, we will have:

(22)
(p of the last formula more half corresponds to the weight of the projectile of loaded with dust that in this case it is possible to omit respecting p ≅ pp p)
The sizes considered in the relation will be then:
- p = weight of the projectile in Kg
- pp = weight of the dust Kg
- V0 = initial speed of the projectile in m/sec
- g = 9,81 m/s2 (acceleration of gravity)
- Rt = thermic coefficient of the dust
- pc = calorific value of the dust in cal/gr
- j = costing of conversion equal to 0,427 (0,4267)
The very vivacious dusts have a very low Rt because they disperse a strong quantity of heat in report to that one converted into mechanical energy., the dusts of slow combustion present a quite high Rt to the contrary one.
There exist State lotteries of dust in which the thermic and ballistic yields are brought back systematically, they are used above all in the industrial loading to correct, with the dose, several discarding between State lottery and State lottery.
We remember that such coefficients have value only with components that rationally are used for the cartridge (cases, triggers, balls), not with loading "imagination.
So doing, and using the formulas up to here described, there are obtained such values of maxim to avoid dangerous combinations, tracing out, in first approximation, the behaviour of the propellant in a datum munitioning.
I use the coefficient of thermic yield (↑)
Leaving from the weight of the projectile and from the desired V0, there will be sufficient to be provided with the datum of thermic yield of the dust, to respect the necessary quantity it. The relation (22) will let obtain an estimate a priori of the doses of propellant or at least, will give us the indicative value of the dose around which to make little following settlements.

(22)
Calculation example leaving from Rb and Rt (↑)
Smooth cane - example 1
(it dates in monometric cane noticed from Valerio Monti)
Wanting to overload with the dust Tecna in cal.12, with 50g of lead, into cases into plastic art of equal finished length to 50mm, with waste wool Gualandi 17/14 the weight of 2,15g, with trigger 615 and using the blows in an automatic one with cane piercing to 18,4mm and cane 81cm, we want to determine the dose of fit dust to throw the projectile (pallini borra) to 400 m/s with shot.
Data of the dust:
| It dates Dust Tecna | ||
| Rt | Rb | I project (g) |
| 0.41 | 0.35 | 36 |
| 0.46 | 0.32 | 42 |
| 0.48 | 0.30 | 46 |
| 0.49 | 0.28 | 50 |
| Potential ≅ 1080 cal/g | ||
We will have (22):

(22)
pp = (0,050 0,00215) • 400 ² / (2 • 9,81 • 0,49 • 1080 • 0,427)
unwinding the calculations we will have that pp =1,88 g
The section of the cane will have equal surface to S = ∏ •r2=3,14•9,22=265,8mmq
Considering the long case 5cm, the run of the projectile will be approximately: lc=81-5=76cm
The maximum pressure of such a loading will be given by (18):

(18)
Pmax = 10 • (50 2,15 1,88/2) • 400 ² / (2·265,8·760·0,28)
unwinding the calculations we will see that Pmax = 751 bars
According to these calculations a dose of 1,88g of Tecna for 50g of shot, it will determine a pressure of 751 bars in order that the lead makes travelling to the V0 of 400 m/s. For check, such a munitions have supplied to the bank the next data (in cane with cm. 70 and not 81): V0 = 397 m/s; Pmax = 758 bars
Then the obtained approximation is remarkable.
Smooth cane - example 2
(it dates in monometric cane noticed from Valerio Monti)
We load this time: 36g of middle shot in lead with case in plastic art 12/70, trigger DFS686 Martignoni, container Gualandi 25/21 the weight of 2,59g, dust Tecna in dose 1,80g, stellar closing of the cartridge. Finished munitions closed to 57,8mm. Such a cartridge had given a time of equal cane to 3029µs with a V0 of 410 m/s and Pmax of 550-570 bars. Will consider the Potential, Rt and Rb of the dust, as for the preceding example. We do the calculations hypothesising the use of an automatic rifle with cane piercing to 18,4mm and cane 81cm. When there were applying (18) and (22) we will have:
Pmax=10 • (36 2,59 9) • 410 ² / (2·265,8·760·0,35) = 565,7 bars
pp = (0,036 0,00259) • 410 ² / (2·9,81·0,41·1080·0,427) = 1,75 g
little settlements of the dose are owed also to the calorific value difference between State lottery and I fight, if here indication was suitable on the dust manufactures, it might calculate with the perfect approximation the ballistic behaviour of the cartridges.
Relations of Heydenreich (↑)
The ballistic German Heydenreich, based on experiments completed at the beginning of 1900, has elaborated a series of empiric formulas that, with acceptable approximation, allow to carry out the principal calculations of internal ballistics. Such formulas are based on a trend pressorio in cane standardised, obtained at Heydenreich's mediating the results of numerous experimental tests. The Heydenreich method, for the use simplicity, is used often by planners and developers for the study of the typical parametres of the internal ballistics.
The empiric relations studied by Heydenreich are set up about two values tables. The first one puts in relation the ballistic yield with five possible numerical coefficients. The second one considers the report between the hypothesised run of the projectile and the point of maximum pressure, such a value establishes three possible empiric coefficients. We examine with order two tables.
Tabella_1 Heydenreich coefficients (↑)
As already seen on (13) the ballistic yield (Rb) is given by the report between the maximum pressure (Pmax) and the middle pressure in cane (Pm).

(13)
Rb for some dusts and for some specific orders of the cartridge, is a coefficient that can be supplied at the producer's. If Rb is not well-known it is possible to calculate it determining the Pm and measuring experimentally the Pmax (test in manometrica).
Like visa at (12) the Pm's it can be calculated by the relation:

(12)
Such a relation supplies the pressure in Kg/cmq, to have the conversion in bar we must multiply for the factor g/10, we will have:

(23)
Simplifying g and, similarly to all that I endorse on (18), expressing:
- p = weight of the projectile in g
- pp = weight of the dust g
- V0 = initial speed of the projectile in m/sec
- g = 9,81 m/s2 (acceleration of gravity)
- S = area of the straight section of the cane in mmq
- lc = length of the real run of the projectile in metre
we will be able to write:

(24)
Pm will be so expressed in bar.
Then, obtained Rb with the detailed bills of the dust or for calculation and test in cane manometrica, we will compare such a value with the first Heydenreich table:
| Tabella_1 Heydenreich factors | |||||
| Rb | to | b | c | d | f |
| 0,25 | 0,0313 | 0,139 | 0,324 | 0,216 | 0,725 |
| 0,26 | 0,033 | 0,146 | 0,326 | 0,22 | 0,732 |
| 0,27 | 0,0347 | 0,152 | 0,327 | 0,226 | 0,74 |
| 0,28 | 0,0365 | 0,159 | 0,329 | 0,231 | 0,747 |
| 0,29 | 0,0383 | 0,165 | 0,331 | 0,237 | 0,755 |
| 0,3 | 0,0402 | 0,172 | 0,333 | 0,242 | 0,762 |
| 0,31 | 0,0421 | 0,178 | 0,335 | 0,25 | 0,77 |
| 0,32 | 0,044 | 0,186 | 0,337 | 0,256 | 0,777 |
| 0,33 | 0,046 | 0,193 | 0,339 | 0,263 | 0,785 |
| 0,34 | 0,048 | 0,2 | 0,341 | 0,269 | 0,792 |
| 0,35 | 0,05 | 0,207 | 0,343 | 0,278 | 0,8 |
| 0,36 | 0,0521 | 0,214 | 0,345 | 0,282 | 0,807 |
| 0,37 | 0,0542 | 0,222 | 0,347 | 0,288 | 0,814 |
| 0,38 | 0,0563 | 0,229 | 0,35 | 0,294 | 0,822 |
| 0,39 | 0,0585 | 0,237 | 0,351 | 0,3 | 0,829 |
| 0,4 | 0,0608 | 0,244 | 0,354 | 0,304 | 0,836 |
| 0,41 | 0,0631 | 0,252 | 0,356 | 0,313 | 0,844 |
| 0,42 | 0,0654 | 0,26 | 0,359 | 0,319 | 0,851 |
| 0,43 | 0,0678 | 0,268 | 0,361 | 0,325 | 0,858 |
| 0,44 | 0,0703 | 0,276 | 0,364 | 0,332 | 0,866 |
| 0,45 | 0,0729 | 0,284 | 0,366 | 0,34 | 0,873 |
| 0,46 | 0,0756 | 0,292 | 0,369 | 0,346 | 0,88 |
| 0,47 | 0,0784 | 0,301 | 0,371 | 0,354 | 0,888 |
| 0,48 | 0,0813 | 0,309 | 0,374 | 0,363 | 0,895 |
| 0,49 | 0,0843 | 0,318 | 0,377 | 0,372 | 0,902 |
| 0,5 | 0,0875 | 0,326 | 0,38 | 0,382 | 0,91 |
| 0,51 | 0,0908 | 0,335 | 0,383 | 0,394 | 0,918 |
| 0,52 | 0,0944 | 0,343 | 0,386 | 0,407 | 0,926 |
| 0,53 | 0,0981 | 0,352 | 0,39 | 0,421 | 0,934 |
| 0,54 | 0,102 | 0,361 | 0,393 | 0,437 | 0,942 |
| 0,55 | 0,1061 | 0,37 | 0,396 | 0,454 | 0,95 |
| 0,56 | 0,1099 | 0,379 | 0,399 | 0,47 | 0,958 |
| 0,57 | 0,1141 | 0,388 | 0,403 | 0,487 | 0,966 |
| 0,58 | 0,1185 | 0,397 | 0,406 | 0,505 | 0,974 |
| 0,59 | 0,123 | 0,406 | 0,409 | 0,524 | 0,983 |
There obtained the coefficients to to f correspondents to the value of determinate Rb, we will be able to calculate all the parametres to be followed:

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

(29)
with:
XPmax = Space covered by the projectile up to the attainment of the Pmax (mm) tPmax = Time used to reach the maximum pressure (ms) (*)
VPmax = Speed of the projectile to the attainment of the maximum pressure (m/s)
P0 = residual Pressure to the flight (bar) (**)
t0 = Time used by the projectile to reach the flight (ms) (*)
having:
lc = Run of the projectile up to the flight (mm)
V0 = Speed of the projectile to the flight (m/s)
( *) t0 it is near to the time of cane of the projectile, he differs from this last why, in manometrica, the cane time is defined like the time passed by the contact of the striker on the trigger up to the exit of the projectile to the flight. Two times will differ then for the transitory ones of trigger and lighting do not value you in the calculation of t0 and also of tPmax.
(**) The datum of residual pressure to the flight (P0) can be useful for the definition of the intesità of the secondary riculo. You see the article Fix on the physics of the recoil.
Tabella_2 Heydenreich coefficients (↑)
The second table consents instead of calculating: pressure, speed and times, in relation to the space covered by the projectile. To do this it is necessary to know the value of D, I refer between the space hypothetically covered by the projectile x and XPmax, value obtained by means of the use of the Tabella_1.

(30)
| Tabella_2 Heydenreich factors | |||
| D | hour | or | |
| 0,25 | 0,741 | 0,392 | 0,61 |
| 0,5 | 0,912 | 0,635 | 0,78 |
| 0,75 | 0,98 | 0,834 | 0,903 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 1,25 | 0,989 | 1,13 | 1,081 |
| 1,5 | 0,965 | 1,262 | 1,154 |
| 1,75 | 0,932 | 1,366 | 1,219 |
| 2 | 0,898 | 1,468 | 1,282 |
| 2,5 | 0,823 | 1,632 | 1,394 |
| 3 | 0,747 | 1,763 | 1,495 |
| 3,5 | 0,675 | 1,875 | 1,589 |
| 4 | 0,604 | 1,983 | 1,682 |
| 4,5 | 0,546 | 2,068 | 1,769 |
| 5 | 0,495 | 2,14 | 1,851 |
| 6 | 0,403 | 2,269 | 2,012 |
| 7 | 0,338 | 2,363 | 2,163 |
| 8 | 0,284 | 2,445 | 2,309 |
| 9 | 0,248 | 2,509 | 2,451 |
| 10 | 0,22 | 2,566 | 2,589 |
| 11 | 0,199 | 2,615 | 2,725 |
| 12 | 0,181 | 2,659 | 2,858 |
| 13 | 0,164 | 2,702 | 2,988 |
| 14 | 0,15 | 2,74 | 3,116 |
| 15 | 0,137 | 2,777 | 3,253 |
| 16 | 0,125 | 2,811 | 3,39 |
| 17 | 0,117 | 2,837 | 3,502 |
| 18 | 0,109 | 2,862 | 3,618 |
| 19 | 0,102 | 2,887 | 3,74 |
| 20 | 0,096 | 2,91 | 3,816 |
| 25 | 0,073 | 3,003 | 4,455 |
| 30 | 0,058 | 3,075 | 5,031 |
| 35 | 0,048 | 3,162 | 5,657 |
| 40 | 0,041 | 3,223 | 6,261 |
| 0,58 | 0,1185 | 0,397 | 0,406 |
| 0,59 | 0,123 | 0,406 | 0,409 |
The sought-after values will be able to be calculated easy by means of the use of the first table. The formulas to be applied will be:

(31)

(32)

(33)
with:
Px = Pressure after the projectile has covered the space x
Vx = Speed after the projectile has covered the space x
tx = Time used to cover the space x (*)
Then, if they are well-known: the maximum pressure (Pmax) or the ballistic yield (Rb) and the speed to the mouth (V0) of a cartridge, is possible to calculate the values long the whole run of the projectile within the cane.
Calculation example when the tables were using Heydenreich (↑)
Ruled cane – example 3
(it dates in monometric cane deals at an article of Massimo's Morto about TacArmi's)
We hypothesise of wanting to calculate the cane time and of sbossolamento (*) of the bullet with pistol in cal.9×21 constituted: ball 122gr (7,90g) LTC, OAL 29,3mm, propellent Vihtavuori N340 in dose 4,8gr (0,31g), Pmax in cane manometrica of 1856bar and one V0 noticed of 354 m/s, length of the cane 150mm. We hypothesise the bullet sunk into the case for about 7mm.
We calculate how first element the middle pressure in cane using (24):

(24)
Pm=10•3542 • (7,9 0,16) / (2·63,6·136) =583,8 bars
Having considered lc=150-21 7=136mm
and S=63,6mmq
Then we use the expression of Rb of the relation (13):

(13)
Rb=583,8/1856=0,31
The Tabella_1 of the coefficients of Heydenreich in correspondence of Rb=0,31 we obtain:
a=0,0421 _ b=0,178 _ c=0,335 _ d=0,250 _ f=0,770
the estimate of the time t0 used at the bullet to reach the flight will be given by (30):

(29)
t0=2•136•0,770/354=0,592ms (592µs)
the time of real cane, competed in monoprosody, has been t0=548 µs, the estimate results in a tolerance of 10 % (about 8 % to be demanded). We value the sbossolamento time. Having considered the bullet sunk into the case for about 7mm, we must calculate the time necessary to the bullet to cover such a distance. We will use the Tabella_2 of Heydenreich and the relations (30) and (33):

(30)

(33)
x in our case it is 7mm, XPamx with (25) will be equal to:

(25)
XPmax=136•0,044=5,98mm
D=7/5,98=1,17mm
At the Tabella_2's we obtain a value of the coefficient or included between 1 and 1,082; we will consider a proportionally intermediate value: o=1,072.
From (26) we know that:

(26)
tPmax=2•136•0,178/354=0,137ms
At last the time of sbossolamento (meant like time passed between the beginning of the movement of the bullet and the exit at the case) will be given approximately: tx=0,137•1,072=0,147ms (147µs)
To follow you will find the graph obtained by the numerical simulation by means of the equations Heydenreich of pressure and speed in cane, as the time:

Curves simulated for the conditions of the example 5
Smooth cane - example 4
(it dates in monometric cane noticed from Valerio Monti)
We consider again the disposable data on the example 2: 36g of middle shot in lead with case in plastic art 12/70, trigger DFS686 Martignoni, container Gualandi 25/21 at the weight of 2,59g, dust Tecna's in dose 1,80g, stellar closing of the cartridge. Finished munitions closed to 57,8mm. Such a cartridge had given a time of equal cane to 3029µs with a V0 of 410 m/s and Pmax of 550-570 bars (560 mediates).
We try to calculate the cane time us availing itself of the Heydenreich relations. The middle pressure will be given by (24):

(24)
then, when 2 were using the data of the example and hypothesising an insertion of the bullet in the case of 35mm:
Pm=10•4102 • (38,59 0,9) / (2·265,8·787,2) =158,6 bars
Rb of the relation (13) will be equal to:

(13)
Rb=160,7/560=0,28
t0, next time to the cane time, will be given by (29) with the coefficient f extracted tabella_1; f=0,747:

(29)
t0=2•787,2•0,747/410=2,868ms (2868µs)
against a survey in manometrica of 3029µs, then with a difference limited to 6 %.
Final considerations (↑)
Naturally the mathematic relations above shown give a maxim estimate and there cannot take innumerable variables into account which: temperature environment, differences between State lotteries, differing crimpatura or hemming, typology of the cane, typology of the projectile, different loading density, etc. In any case, such relations let include a little part of the physics that is to the base of the internal ballistics and allow to respect beforehand, more or less exactly, the results to be attended at a specific reloading.
At last, to facilitate the use of the mathematic relations above shown, we enclose the next calculation sheet: Heydenreich_Rb_Rt. Eso is subdivided in four sections and automated also for the individualization of the parametres of Heydenreich; it will turn out to be extremely a profit if he is required to us cimetare in some estimate of internal ballistics.






















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